Perhaps the most inspiring exercise science published in 2011 involved the effects that working out can have on the brain. By studying both lab rodents and people, scientists this year showed that exercise increases cognitive sharpness, even if the amount of exercise is small. In a representative experiment involving mice, which I wrote about in September, scientists at the University of South Carolina found that the equivalent of about 30 minutes of jogging a day changed the animals’ brain cells at a molecular level. After a few months of running, their neurons contained more mitochondria, a cell component that produces energy, than did the neurons of sedentary mice. In effect, their brain cells had become more robust and physically fit, thanks to the jogging.

Similarly, other studies published this year found that even in volunteers who were not distance runners or mice, activity significantly improved cognitive function. One fascinating study of elderly Canadians that I wrote about this summer showed that those who regularly walked around the block, gardened, cleaned the house, cooked or otherwise remained active without formally exercising, scored much better on tests of memory and other mental skills than older people who were almost completely inactive.

This study and the many others now linking activity and improved mental functioning represent “a wake-up call,” Dr. Eric Larson, the vice president of research at Group Health Research Institute in Seattle and author of an editorial that accompanied the study, told me.

“None of us wants to lose our minds,” he said — a sentiment with which I fervently agree — so we “have to find ways to get everybody moving.”

One means might be to direct people to the most popular column I wrote this year, in terms of both the number of page views and the number of comments, about the effect of exercise on aging. In the study highlighted in that column, Dr. Mark Tarnopolsky, a professor of pediatrics at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, took rats bred to age at an accelerated rate and had them start running.

After a few months, by which time the non-running control rats were frail, bald and dying, the runners still had virtually all of their youthful muscle mass, balance, mental acuity and fur and, unlike the sedentary animals, had not developed shrinkage in their hearts, brains or gonads. I have rarely skipped an exercise session since reading that study, and am happy to report that I still have a full head of fur.

Not all of the exercise science this year was quite so encouraging, however. Another column that inspired considerable interest and comments involved several new studies intimating that too much running might – and I would stress the word “might” – produce scarring or other damage in the heart. In one study, M.R.I. scans of a small group of lifelong elite male endurance athletes found signs of scarring in some of the men’s heart muscles.

A separate study of rats that had undergone the equivalent of years of marathon training showed similar signs of scarring within their hearts.

But these results, although certainly provocative, are preliminary and may turn out to be meaningless, as the scientists who conducted the studies acknowledge. There is no evidence that heart muscle scarring, if it occurs, leads to heart problems. And as Dr. Paul Thompson, the chief of cardiology at Hartford Hospital in Connecticut and an expert on sports cardiology, told me, “Too much exercise has not been a big problem in America. Most people just run to stay in shape, and for them, the evidence is quite strong that endurance exercise is good” for the heart.

Just as the evidence is increasingly strong that it is good for your brain, muscles, mitochondria and gonads.

Which is why I plan to continue running — and biking, hiking, walking, gardening and weight training — in 2012, although I may leave the housecleaning to my husband. In reviewing the year in fitness, in fact, what struck me most strongly was that, although this column covers science, it is also sneakily about me. I’m a middle-aged lifelong exerciser with an increasingly leaky memory and sometimes-wavering resolve. I’ve found inspiration and encouragement in the fitness science this year, although I do wish that it could have discovered that typing constitutes a workout. At least fidgeting counts. By Gretchen Retnolds, The New York Times

The more often older people have sex, the more likely they are to be happy with life and enjoy a good marriage, a small study suggests.

The figures show that elderly people who had sex more than once a month were 50% more likely to say they were very happy with their life than those who reported no sexual activity during the previous year.

The findings were based on a US opinion poll of 238 people aged 65 or over and analysed by researchers at Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University. Participants were asked to rate their feelings about life and their marriage according to whether they were happy, pretty happy or not too happy.

Sexual frequency

The researchers found that 40% of older people who said they had no sexual activity within the past 12 months reported feeling very happy with life in general. This rose to 60% in those who said they indulged in sexual activity at least once a month.

Similarly, while about 59% of individuals who reported no sexual activity in the last 12 months said they were very happy with their marriage, almost 80% who had sex more than once a month said they were very happy with their relationship.

The research has been presented in Boston at a meeting of The Gerontological Society of America, an organisation devoted to studies on ageing.

Adrienne Jackson, an assistant professor at the university, said in a statement: “This study will help open the lines of communication and spark interest in developing ‘outside the box’ approaches to dealing with resolvable issues that limit or prevent older adults from participating in sexual activity.

“Highlighting the relationship between sex and happiness will help us in developing and organising specific sexual health interventions for this growing segment of our population.”

Stereotypes

The Sexual Advice Association says the issues surrounding mature sexuality are still not openly discussed, leaving a prevailing stereotype of older people as “asexual, devoid of feelings or emotion”.

For older people, the quality of their sex life can be dependent on their general health, the Association says. However, on the positive side, retirement and children leaving home can leave older couples with more time on their hands for each other, and studies have found that over half of women aged over 50 are satisfied with their sex lives.

An online poll carried out for Saga Magazine found that 85% of older people reported that sex was less frequent for them now than when they were in their 20s and 30s. However, 82% said they felt less pressure to have sex and 61% said it was more fulfilling. By Peter Russell, WebMD

But be careful how you enjoy it, cautions Dr. Anita Valanju Shelgikar, director of the sleep medicine fellowship program at the University of Michigan.

“It’s truly easier to go this way than in the other direction,” Shelgikar said, referring to the spring-time shift forward an hour. “It does give you an extra hour in the morning to sleep, but it can throw people off, primarily because people say I can stay up a lot later because I have an extra hour in the morning to sleep and ultimately, they sleep deprive themselves.” [Are You Getting Enough Sleep?]

The arrival of winter presents a more difficult transition than the shift back, since, as the days shorten, a gap widens between our internal body clocks and the natural day, she said. This becomes more of an issue farther north, since days become even shorter.

Why turn back the clock?

Daylight saving time, which is now ending, is an attempt to take advantage of the annual fluctuation in the amount of time we see the sun above the horizon. This fluctuation happens because the axis around which the Earth rotates doesn’t stand straight relative to the sun, rather our planet is tilted 23.5 degrees.

This means that as the Earth travels around the sun on its annual course, one hemisphere is tilted toward the sun, getting more than its fair share of light and warmth, while the other is titled away and enduring winter.

This effect becomes stronger as you travel farther north or south away from the equator, so that summer at either pole means 24-hour sunlight, and winter means 24-hour darkness. The continental U.S. experiences a less extreme fluctuation in day length over the course of the year.

Daylight saving time is an attempt to deal with this situation, by shifting the national schedule forward an hour in March to take advantage of lengthening daylight hours, and back again in November as daylight shrinks. The idea was first suggested by Benjamin Franklin in 1874.

Dealing with darkness

Light is the most important environmental cue that tells our brains to wake up in the morning, so darkness in the morning makes it hard to get out of bed, Shelgikar said.

She recommends exposing your eyes to light right when you get up. While natural light is probably the best cue, artificial light in your bedroom can still help, she said.

A routine also helps. Shelgikar also recommends sticking to a set sleep schedule, with a fixed bedtime and a fixed wake time. By Wynne Parry, Yahoo Daily News

The Ministry of Defence has launched a campaign to promote better awareness of the mental health injuries of war.

Called “Don’t bottle it up”, it aims to remove the stigma from wounds that cannot be seen – and urges servicemen and women not to ignore warning signs.

The charity Combat Stress says 85% of veterans are too embarrassed to admit to depression or anxiety, while one in three fail to tell their families.

The launch coincides with World Mental Health Day.

Psychological scars

Staff Sgt Vicky Charnock became ill after several tours of Afghanistan – but found it difficult to talk about her problems when she most needed to. Eventually, she was diagnosed with depression.

Vicky says: “While I was going through it, I didn’t want people to know – I was embarrassed about it.

“But once I got better and realised how common it is I realised that there was no need to be embarrassed or ashamed – and at that point I was more than happy to talk about it now if it comes up in conversation, and say this was what I went through.”

Former soldier Neil Blower talks about his experience of post-combat stress

One practical measure that’s already been introduced is trauma risk management training – or Trim for short.

More than 5,000 servicemen and women have been trained to recognise the signs of mental distress in their comrades, so they can encourage troops suffering in silence to get help.

Sgt Dave Harrison, Trim trainer, said: “There’s still an expectancy for our soldiers – guys and girls – to crack on with the job, knowing the difficult task that they have.

“But what we’ve got with them with that is that if anything goes wrong, we’re going to support you, not just physically, but mentally. We have mental systems in place now – psychological systems and pillars of support – that will help you if you’re suffering from a traumatic event.”

It is hoped that encouraging service personnel who struggle with the events and scenes they have witnessed, to share their burden sooner, rather than later, will avoid long-term damage. BBC

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But in this age of volatile gas prices and climate worries, these clean, quiet vehicles are winning new fans. Advances in technology have improved their range and power. Companies are rolling them out in every flavor.

Need a small SUV? Take a look at the Toyota RAV4 electric hitting the market next year. How about a luxury sedan? There’s the Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid, which the automaker compares to a Maserati Quattroporte but with better mileage and lower emissions than a Toyota Prius. Do you lean toward small, practical sedans that seat five? The Nissan Leaf may be your ticket.

Although existing offerings and the EVs about to come out are comparable to many conventional gasoline-powered vehicles in virtually every aspect but range, they aren’t for everyone. Here’s what to consider if you are thinking of making an electric vehicle or plug-in hybrid your next drive.

BE PREPARED TO PAY MORE: A glance at the sticker prices says it all. You are going to pay more for the privilege of being able to zip along powered by electrons rather than fossil fuel. The cost of a home charging station adds an expense you don’t have with a gasoline car, but it does add convenience.

When you take the purchase price, add in the cost of three years of maintenance, three years of fuel and a home charging station, then back out the expected resale price, a Chevrolet Volt will run almost $9,000 more than a similar-size conventional-engine Hyundai Elantra and about $5,000 more than the current Prius hybrid before sales taxes and registration fees. A Leaf has a lower sticker price and qualifies for more incentives, depending on your state. It will cost about $6,500 more than an Elantra and about $3,500 more than a Prius before taxes and registration fees.

PHILOSOPHY OR ECONOMICS: Is it worth the added expense to reduce your dependence on oil? What are you willing to pay to reduce carbon emissions in your neighborhood? The Leaf creates about 1.8 tons of carbon emissions in a year’s driving, or about 13,500 miles, according to federal estimates. A Honda Accord spews 6.2 tons of carbon emissions traveling the same distance. If you can keep a Volt — which has a gas engine to kick in and make electricity when the battery runs out — on mostly electric power, you will put up carbon numbers closer to the Leaf.

THINK ABOUT YOUR DRIVE: Face it. If you have a mega-commute, you will be better off in a hybrid or conventional fuel-efficient vehicle.

Motorists who commute about 40 miles or less, or who have easy access to a workplace charging station, will be able to make better use of an EV because they won’t be limited by the shorter range of the vehicles.

But even then, be careful. The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid that goes on sale next year will have an all-electric range of only about 13 miles. After that, the gasoline engine starts. People who drive more than 13 to 15 miles a day might be better off buying a conventional hybrid or fuel-efficient gas-powered car and saving the premium they would pay for the plug-in and the expense of a home charging station.

A Nissan Leaf, and some of its rivals hitting the market in the coming months, will go roughly 75 miles or more on one charge. That’s enough for a longer commute, but because the Leaf, the Ford Focus Electric and similar cars are pure electric vehicles, there’s no backup gas motor to engage and provide a safety net.

CHARGING INTO CHARGING: EVs make the most sense for people who can charge at home, and that rules out most apartment and condo dwellers for now. A home charging station is going to set you back about $2,000 and possibly more, depending on the wiring in your home. You also will need to clear out space in your garage to park a car — imagine that!

And you are going to have to research electricity rates. According to the Union of Concerned Scientists, a Leaf owner who drives 13,500 miles annually will pay from $393 to $725 for Los Angeles Department of Water and Power electricity, depending on off-peak or peak charging schedules.

KNOW THE INCENTIVES: Electric vehicles on the market and coming models are expected to qualify for the $7,500 federal tax credit. But various state and other incentives beyond that get tricky, and you need to research the appropriate government agency before you buy.

WHEN TO JUMP IN: This is the classic conundrum of all advanced-technology products. Do I buy now or wait for something to come along later? The big issue with electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids is how long you can go before the juice runs out. That’s dependent on the size of the battery and its energy density. Tesla vehicles claim the biggest ranges — around 200 miles. But unless you are a seriously eco-conscious driver, it’s going to be hard to get even close to 100 miles out of the other vehicles. Plug-in hybrid ranges will be much larger because you will have the gas engine as a backup.

Most automakers believe there will be only small improvements to batteries in the near future. The price will go down as manufacturing volumes increase, but we won’t see a sudden jump that doubles the range of the Leaf or the Focus Electric.

Buyers also need to be concerned about battery life. Theoretically, the batteries have long warranties — eight to 10 years, depending on state regulation and the individual automaker. But they also are expected to degrade, and that will hurt range. It is not clear when an automaker might step in and replace a battery as it degrades.

In the near term, many buyers may decide to lease an electric vehicle instead of making a purchase. That would insure them against issues with performance and the battery. At the end of 36 months, you can hand the car and keys back to the manufacturer and see what new cool EV is on the market. Or by then, maybe you will be ready to check out the first of the hydrogen fuel-cell autos. By Jerry Hirsch, Los Angeles Times

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Medieval suits of armour were so exhausting to wear that they could have affected the outcomes of famous battles, a study suggests.

Scientists monitored volunteers fitted with 15th Century replica armour as they walked and ran on treadmills.

They found that the subjects used high levels of energy, bore immense weight on their legs and suffered from restricted breathing.

The research is published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B.

The effect of the heavy armour was so great, that the researchers believe it may have have had an impact on the Battle of Agincourt.

In this famous Anglo-French conflict of 1415, French knights were defeated by their English counterparts, despite the fact that they heavily outnumbered them.

The researchers say their study suggests that the armour-clad French, who had to trek through a muddy field to meet the stationary English line, were so slowed and exhausted by their march that they would have stood little chance.

Lead researcher Dr Graham Askew, from the University of Leeds, said: “You look at these suits of armour, and they weigh between 30 and 50kg, so it is a huge fraction of the wearer’s body weight.”

Running battle

In the 15th Century, as the arms race progressed with the development of new and powerful weapons such as the longbow and crossbow, armour too evolved.

In late Medieval Europe, these bulky battle suits were principally constructed from interlocking steel plates, covering the soldier from head to toe.

But with the added protection came extra weight and cumbersomeness – and while researchers have always realised that this would have impaired a soldier’s performance, nobody until now has quantified by how much.

To study this, researchers asked four participants, who regularly re-enact battles for the Royal Armouries in Leeds, to don their exact-replica armour from England, Gothic Germany and Italy and get onto a treadmill.

By recording how much oxygen they took in and carbon dioxide they produced, the team was able to calculate how much energy they were using. High-speed cameras also helped the researchers to study how the volunteers were using their limbs.

Dr Askew, who carried out the research with colleagues from the University of Oxford and the University of Milan, said: “Our main finding was that it was extremely expensive in terms of the amount of energy used to move in the armour.”

The team found that walking and running with the armour used up twice as much energy as doing the same thing without any armour.

The breast and back plates of the medieval armour also affected breathing: instead of being able to take long, deep breaths while they worked up a sweat, the volunteers were forced to take frequent, shallow breaths, and this too used up more energy.

Leg pains

The scientists also looked at how the volunteers performed while wearing armour compared with carrying the equivalent load on their backs, which is similar to the weight a modern soldier might carry in their backpack.

Dr Askew said: “We found there was a big difference: it is much more ‘expensive’ to carry the load as a suit of armour than it is to carry the load in a backpack.

“We were interested to find out why that was – and one of the main reasons is that if you wear a suit of armour, a lot of the weight is carried on the legs – about 7-8kg of it.

“And this means when you walk and you swing your legs, you are requiring a lot more muscular effort, and that costs you a lot more energy.”

The team said their findings had given an insight into the battlefield trade-off between added protection alongside increased manoeuvrability and fitness to fight.

Dr Askew explained: “Yes, they could have removed the leg parts of the armour, but it might have meant they would have been cut on the leg and killed that way.”

He added though, that this may not have been such a problem in the 16th Century.

With the advent of guns, hand-to-hand combat decreased, and this too affected the design of the armour.

He said: “It is interesting to see though that as armour developed into the 16th Century, the part of the armour that was lost was the lower leg – the thing that we found increases the cost of movement.”

Thom Richardson, keeper of armours, from the Royal Armouries in Leeds added: “It is interesting to use scientific method to answer these questions, and it confirms what we have always suspected – heavy armour would very much reduce your ability to run around.

“But no-one wears stuff on the battlefield if it isn’t useful.” By Rebecca Morelle, BBC News